Most people can do better financially. Most of us if not all of us meet opportunities on a daily basis that are intended to change our financial fortunes for the better but are unable to recognize them in their camouflaged state. Opportunities of devious magnitudes happen to all men. We are programmed to see and hear only those things that we want to see and hear. What will happen if we can learn to freeze this approach to life and unfreeze the conscious expectation of everything we need to become what we should be, that is, if we fully comprehend and have visualized what we should be? Nothing happens by chance! You have to want it and want it very bad.There is always a starting point to everything and a first time with which to experience things. If we do not start we’ll never get anywhere and the worst that can happen is retrogression. Our dreams which are linked to our desires differ in magnitude. Some people desire to be wealthy and others desire to be well to do, that is, to have their needs met. Some actions have to be initiated for these things to manifest. It is only when you are consciously conscious of who you want to become and what you want to achieve that you will begin to take appropriate and relevant actions to achieving your goals. We all have something to give to others which we can do in exchange for something. This is how battering came about and was highly effective. It was all about meeting the needs of others. Think about what you can do to meet the needs of others and receive compensation for doing that and you will have found an income generating system.For those who are already earning an income, there are some things you can begin to consider to improve your financial status. Make sure that you cover the basic stuff first before considering moving to the next level of financial freedom. Personal financial management is the first hurdle to cross before attempting total financial freedom. If you acquire basic skills for personal financial literacy and manage your personal finances well, you’ll then find business finance management very interesting. The skills of saving, investing, and making your money grow for your future financial needs and of protecting your income are the basis for proper financial planning. Everyone can cure their financial lack.The quest to be financially healthy requires that we be disciplined, responsible, knowledgeable and understanding. Financial literacy is the most important set of life skills that we all need to survive and be successful in the modern world. This is the set of skills that has been acquired by very few people hence there are only few financially successful people in the world today. The lack of this skill results in many people finding it extremely difficult to manage their financial affairs and to successfully plan their financial future.If we spend all our money today we’ll have no provision for tomorrow and we’ll have to work extra hard just to survive. If we save some of our money today, we’ll have something for tomorrow. This is how serious saving and investing a portion of our monies today is. Put your money to good use and let it generate more money for you. If you spend all your money today, then you are giving away your future financial freedom. We cannot just hide our heads in the sand and hope that the future will take care of itself. We have to force ourselves to make hay while the sun is still shining, when age, time, health and resources still allow us to do so. Choosing not to take heed of the advice of the wise will be downright ignorant and foolish.Personal financial management is the launching pad for personal financial freedom and paves a way to personal wealth. We have to start by acknowledging that we are not going to be young forever, that we are not going to be strong physically and mentally forever. We are not going to be able to work forever even though we may wish so. Working, as a business owner or employee, requires strength and energy and aging might be a limiting factor. You need to prepare for an event or time when you will be unable to work any longer. This calls for you to protect your personal income in case you die, become disabled or retire due to old age. You have to consider life and disability assurance while you are still working either as a business owner or employee to protect yourself and your income. Not considering this advice is purely being irresponsible. Consult your financial adviser and engage him or her on this issue. Do the right thing, plan your personal finances. There should be enough money available to pay off debts and in the case of disability, to make changes that will help you cope with your new situation.You have to understand the negative effects of inflation on your savings so that you can craft strategies to counter it. For example, an inflation rate of say 5% a year will half the buying power or value of your money in 10 to 15 years’ time. In other words, if it costs you US$125 a month now to buy your groceries, you will need US$250 to buy those same groceries in 10 to 15 years’ time. Time is the most important factor when it comes to saving and making money grow. The longer time you save, the more interest you will receive out of your savings.Money grows when it is used to make more money. However, investing money is not a sure bet, it involves huge risks. The objective of investing is to make more money. Your goal should be to maximize the returns on your investments with less risk on your capital. It starts from searching and researching companies, funds and business sectors you wish to invest in. There are many different ways of investing money in the economy and each of these different ways has its own levels of risk and return unless you open an investment account with a financial institution (bank). Work on your action plans for short-term, medium term and long-term investment strategies.While it is extremely important to invest in reputable companies, the reputation and integrity of your financial adviser is extremely important. Do not take your adviser’s advice at face value. Go for a second and even a third opinion and do more research. You cannot afford to believe only what your adviser is telling you. Trust is not enough as it will not guarantee you your returns. Research and scrutinize documents before committing yourself. Never put all your eggs in one basket regardless of how tempting it might be.It is extremely important to have a will. Will allows you to register your wishes in writing so that when you pass on, you may have this document speaking for you. Failure to do this will result in your possessions going to people you never wished to have them or going to the state (intestate). Any person of 16 years or older who is mentally capable of understanding what he or she is doing can make a will. Estate laws differ from country to country. Please check laws relevant to your country. Banks, lawyers and trust companies (most of them are insurance companies) can assist with the drawing up of a customer’s will. Ask your banker or financial adviser about the process of setting up a will.Regardless of how prosperous your business and investments are today, you have to provide in advance for the needs of your growing age and the protection of your loved ones. A budget is a plan that deals with the future allocation and utilization of various resources with regard to different organizational activities over a given period. Budgeting is a disciplined way of spending your hard earned income. It is a tool used to translate future plans into quantitative terms.Remember that the wealth you are trying to create is not only for you, it is for your second, third and fourth generations. Budget your expenses in such a way that you may have money available to pay for your necessities. You must also make provision to pay for your entertainment without spending more than ninety per cent of your earnings. Make provision for giving to deserving charities in the ninety per cent available for you to spend. It is important to get used to giving as it is a spiritual and universal law that binds all of us. Make sure that you invest the ten per cent of your income to give you excellent returns. Guard this ten per cent with all diligence for it is a seed that has to generate wealth for you.
Seven Principles of Health for a Happy Long Life
We are very excited to impart to you the seven principles of health. We are looking at what can allow you to live a vibrant, happy, fulfilling, and healthy life. Of course, any of the information we will share with you is purely information, not medical advice. You are however, most welcome to go and seek your own medical advice, specifically from your own health professional. But this information tells about proven methods against the test of time.So you’ve heard a lot of talk about my health and living as well as the seven principles of health. There are a lot of different thoughts about these principles. In general, we are talking about the health principles that really matter. Sure, there might be a couple which you could apply in your life, but these are certainly the most essential ones, those that you should definitely have to include in your lifestyle. In fact, the whole aim of this article is so that you can get a good appreciation of them, so that you too can live a healthy life for yourself.We don’t want people to be sick, and we certainly don’t want people to be taking mostly prescription drugs when they don’t have to. Now, is there any reason why we think that way? Because there are a lot of natural health measures that you can do to prevent ailments in the first place. You can certainly take alternative health measures. For instance, you can take a look at your diet, consider what you really partake of everyday. Is it really toxic to your body, or is it good for you? Are you, unknowingly building things, or destroying things in your body? These are what the seven principles of health really build upon. It really gives you an idea that you can move forward in a positive way for your body, not in a negative way. If you stifle your own growth and the cleansing processes of your body that’s naturally set up, then you’re really preventing yourself from being healthy. We’re only going to touch the surface, only looking the concept in a general point of view because there is a vast information available out there for this topic, and there’s only so much that we could share. But we’re certainly excited to talk about these things, which you can apply in your everyday life. That’s the beauty of it. Helping you take care of yourself everyday using health principles.WHOLE FOODSNow let’s have a look at the first one, Whole Foods. These include natural whole foods, such as fruits, vegetables, grains, nuts, herbs, and other things which are naturally-grown and unprocessed. You can just literally grab them off the tray or consume them without any preparation at all. So how is it that for several millennia, people have looked after themselves and have not gotten themselves into the same troubles that we are into now? It seems like we’ve gotten a lot sicker and a lot more frail. That is because of the processed foods that we have been consuming nowadays. We’ve upset our balance of the natural foods that we should be partaking. If you take a look at the Western diet of today, we can see that we’re having way too much sugar, saturated fats, and we substitute water for sodas or colas. It’s just not right because our whole body is being thrown out of what it’s used to. Our bodies are expecting some sort of natural foods or sustenance to build and repair itself, and it’s not getting it most of the time. So if our bodies are getting something different from whole foods, we would be expecting different results of course. That is why people get a lot sicker nowadays, as opposed to those who lived many centuries ago. The processed food revolution of the last hundred years have really changed our health and brought it downhill. If we go back and embrace the principle of natural health food the way they used to do many, many years ago, where the people did not experience the health problems that we are experiencing today because they haven’t been laden with chemicals or impurities in their bodies, we could look at whole foods as real eye-openers. This is one of the basic principles of good health. Just like in taking fruits alone, with its healing properties and its ability to provide energy and vitality to our bodies. It is just a matter of taking in fruits, which will really help boost our energy to keep us healthy and stable. We won’t have to worry that much about viruses, bacteria, and other harmful agents that will enter our body, because they will be removed fairly quickly. Vegetables are also good food sources for they will strengthen our bodies and keep us strong and healthy. That’s especially true if you consume the ones with low GI, such as sweet potatoes, brown rice, beet roots, carrots, and the like. They will really help strengthen our bodies.You know, it’s funny talking about whole foods, herbs, and spices. Take a look at the ancient methods that the Chinese used, or the old civilizations that used herbs to heal and help cure things. These are the reasons why they work. Certain herbs target specific parts of the body and there’s no reason why you can’t incorporate them into your diet as well. Any sort of research or understanding on Chinese medicine and the old ancient ways might reveal some of these herbs to you. It is most exciting that you can apply these in your life today, just as they did thousands of years ago, to treat the ailments that they had. Nuts and seeds, and other berries are really, really good for you. You can include them in your diets as whole foods to allow you to move forward as a healthy being.Another of these which are really mentioned quite a lot is milk. There’s nothing wrong with milk. If it’s raw milk, it’s got all the nutrients which will be really good for your body. It’s full of protein, essential fats, and gives you strength.The other food which I would like to mention is natural, raw honey. It is full of enzymes which can really boost immunity and it is antibacterial as well. It really stands out in giving good health and vitality, and you can even apply it to your external wound. If you ever get a cut or a lesion, honey is very good in healing the wound and keeping it clean as well. So, as you have read, there are heaps of natural and whole foods which can help you to build and maintain a healthy state. And, as they say, it is never too late to introduce them into your diet as well. That is, if you have been lacking them in the past. There’s no reason why you can’t introduce them now to help boost and change your lifestyle, allow it to be a healthy one instead.WATERAnother principle of health is Water. Now as you know, we are all made up of more than 70% percent water, which is applied a lot in the building of new cells in our bodies. Water is an essential part of us and we should allow it to work with us. By not drinking water, you are allowing yourself a disservice and depriving your body of its proper health and nutrition. On a cellular level, you’ve got to consider that each cell needs the delivery as well as removal of certain nutrients. If you look at one cell, it might have a building block, which may need a certain nutrient to complete its function. However, it can only get there with enough water in the system. Now, electrically-charged water is certainly good for us because we are electrically-loaded beings. We survive on the electricity that’s running through our bodies. There are pulses inside us that run here and there in order to send electrical signals to and from the brain and the other parts of our bodies, such as cells, muscle groups, and others. So, in order for this to happen, water has to be an essential part of this process. Salted water is also very good. If you have the right amount of salt in your diet, then the delivery of nutrients and energy between the cells will be easier because you have the right charge.Now, the secret to any good weight-loss or fitness program is that you drink sufficient amounts of water. The reason for this is because water can remove and flush out toxins and excess fat cells that are not needed by the body. Without the sufficient amount of water, your body won’t be able to carry out this process properly. So, as you can see, water is an essential part of the body’s system. Let’s maintain it and work towards building it up in the future. And we should drink at least eight glasses of water per day. If you’re a larger person carrying excess weight, however, then you might have to increase that to, say, 10-12 glasses per day. It depends on your body’s structure too. If you feel thirsty, your body is already starved of water, it’s already dehydrated. The idea, then, is to keep your water levels at a sufficient amount. A good indicator of this is the amount of sweat you produce and urine color. If your urine color is cloudy yellow, drink more water so it would be clearer and lighter in color. It’s a matter of maintaining that as well. So, water is an essential part.AIRNext is Air. It is very important to us, for the obvious reason that we need it when we breathe. But as you know, every cell in our bodies survive on oxygen, and we need to allow our bodies to breathe, every cell has to breathe. So with insufficient oxygen flowing through us, we will slowly get asphyxiated, and toxins won’t be released. So breathing sufficiently is very important. If you go outside, you can get electrically-charged air as well. It is very important. If you ever go to the beach, or if you’re around lightning strikes, you might find some ozone in the air. You can actually smell the ozone, especially if the lightning cracks around you. It is the same sort of smell when you go to the beach; it’s the ocean’s smell. That is extremely good for you, that is O3. It basically gives life and vitality, heightens your senses and energy levels, and it’s just really good for you. In fact, if you take five deep breaths for multiple times per day, it will allow your whole body to get rejuvenated. Deep breathing is great because it opens up your airways and it brings your oxygen levels up.SUNSHINENext on the principles of health is Sunshine. Getting enough sunshine is crucial for health and vitality. Now I’m not saying that you should go get sunburned. What I’m saying is that you should spend about 20 to 30 minutes out in the sun every day. Now you should do that during the “safe-sun” hours, which is usually before ten in the morning and after two in the afternoon, if possible, because the sunlight between ten in the morning and two in the afternoon will probably get you burned a bit easier. So getting enough sunlight is very important. If you allow the sunshine to penetrate or to be absorbed more by your body, and expose more of your skin to the sun, then you will get energy a lot quicker.Now we all know that we get Vitamin D from the sun, and it is very important for your health and the recognition of your nutrients to break down and be accepted into your body. It’s almost like a gateway, wherein Vitamin D allows your minerals to be absorbed properly into your body. So if you don’t have Vitamin D, then this process can’t work properly. You will find that you’ve got a lot of deficiencies as well. You might also be worried about skin cancer. Well, we’ve got different thoughts on that. I don’t believe we could get skin cancer from the sun itself, I believe it’s more on the toxins and the impurities in your skin which are actually burned and which turn against you. So, how come we haven’t got problems on melanoma and skin cancer before, and then all of a sudden, within the last 50 years, we’re now having melanomas? Does that mean that the sun has changed? Or is it because we, and our diets, have changed? I would think it’s probably more so because of the latter. Our diets have certainly changed. The amount of chemicals and radiation inside of our bodies are the problem. The sunlight actually reacts to these chemicals and impurities in the body, under the skin, which actually turned against us. So, a little bit of sunlight every day, in the safe-sun periods, away from being sunburned, will actually do more good than harm. It is very important that everyone will recognize that sunshine is a vital part of health.If you’re not feeling very well, if you’re feeling ill and off-color, well, go for a walk in the sun. Expose your body to the sun and get 20-30 minutes of sunshine. You will feel the energy levels radiating out of you, you’ll feel a lot better afterwards, and it is amazing to see that it actually does you good. If it can make plants grow, make living things flourish, then it is bound to do you good as well. So, don’t just listen to those who are saying that the sun will do you a lot of damage, when it can actually do you a lot of good. It is a matter of managing and doing it properly. Sunlight is very important for health.EXERCISE and MOVEMENTAnother principle is exercise and movement. This is number five out of the seven principles. You need to move; you need to exercise. When I say exercise, I’m not saying you need to be running a marathon. I’m saying you can get out and do some walking, some stretching of your body, and doing some general movements through your whole body. This will do you more good than harm. In fact, we’ve got these things called lymph nodes right through our whole body, and they are not circulated from the heart. The lymph nodes’ fluids are not circulated because they are being pumped by the heart. Instead, they are circulated because of your movements and exercise, as well as through massage. So it is very important that you keep this happening always. Otherwise, they’ll build up, which will cause problems in your lymph glands. It is also important that you keep flushing them and moving them about because they will be stagnant and clogged with toxins.I’m sure everyone can move, walk around, do some stretching, and just generally get up and about. This means that you could get out for 20-30 minutes each day, and it will be a lot easier if you’ve got a routine related to this. If you haven’t got one, well, anytime you get out, you could stretch and move your whole body. It will do you a lot good. So, once again, if you’re feeling under the weather, it’s important that you actually do move. It is important that you do stretch and get the fluids within your body moving so you will be cleansed and the toxins will be removed from your body. Some areas of your body need movement to flush the toxins out and if you’re not moving, they’ll be just sitting there and become stagnant. If you see people with a lot of fluid in their legs, especially elderly people, they’re just sitting there, the fluid builds up in their legs. Now if you want to keep your body parts vital and alive, it’s important that you move about certain parts so that new blood can circulate through your body and through the parts that aren’t moving much. So, to flush out the toxins in your body, movement and exercise is very important.REGENERATIONNumber six on the principles of health is regeneration. This encompasses rest, relaxation, recuperation, and regeneration. That means that everyone needs to rest. Everyone needs to lay flat and lay their heads down, parallel to the earth’s surface. This is so that you can rest, regenerate, and recuperate. Our bodies are designed so that the magnetism and the electrical charge can actually flow properly. To do this, you need to be lying down. Have you ever worked too hard and think you just need to lie down? That is the feeling you get when your body’s saying, enough is enough, and that it needs to regenerate. It’s like a good battery: it can only go for so long before it depletes. If it’s lost, you can’t function properly. And that’s why regeneration is important.Now part of regeneration means that when you do lie down and close your eyes, it does not mean that you get some smartphone or iPhone app or other electronic device and try and fiddle with that because your brain is another organ that needs rest and recuperation as well. And that means shutting down the conscious and allowing it to go into regeneration mode. When you lay down and you rest, that means resting your brain as well. And it’s very important that you do have periods to rest every day, wherein you do not do anything except sit and reflect. Rest and recuperate. That means mentally as well. Otherwise, you will suffer from some sort of burnout later on, and we don’t want that. If you’re feeling ill, then rest and relaxation will surely bring you back to health. When you’re feeling overtired, rest and sleep will allow your body to regenerate and your brain to kick back into gear and reset itself every night. And it’s important that you get at least six hours of sleep every day. If you’re not, then you’re really cheating yourself, and later on you’re going to pay the price and you’re going to really suffer mentally about this. So it’s important that you get about six to eight hours of sleep per day. Rest and recuperate, lie flat down, and allow your body to kick-start itself and regenerate. That’s what the cells need: regeneration.RELATIONSHIPS and PASSIONThe last of the seven principles of health is the Relationship and Passion. Everyone needs to have good relationships, whether it’s with a passerby, you treat them very well, as you would want to be treated. This is also for the long-term relationships with your friends and loved ones as well. You want to have great relationships with positive people to uplift and build. You don’t want bad relationships that would tear down and destroy you. And that also pertains to your general health as well. Positive relationships build, while bad relationships destroy and tear down. It is important that you recognize this, because if you are around toxic people, who constantly batter and bring you down, then it would bring your health down as well. So, it’s a matter of minimizing the time and exposure to toxic people, and building up and allowing positive people to give you more influence instead.The other point there is passion. If you are passionate about something, then you will want to spend more time doing what you are passionate about. That includes your favorite hobby, sport, friends and family. You would want to spend time with these people or these passions. There is a saying that, without hope, we have nothing. Now, we have to have something in our lives which we would want to strive for, get up every day for, move forward for, and that is our passion. Whether it’s strictly for a relationship, for building ourselves up, some sort of hobby, or sport that we really enjoy, it’s important that we have hope in our lives. After all, if we don’t have a passion, then what are we here for? What are we really doing?In the passion, in the relationship, it is also a passion towards your Creator. God is a great avenue to rely on. You might think I am getting a bit spiritual, but it is true. Everyone needs a relationship with the Creator. Everyone needs a relationship with spiritualism in their own life. You need to reach out and realize it. It’s not all about you. You are part of the greater creation and you are part of a greater being and a greater purpose. To have a great relationship with your family and friends is great, but to have a relationship with the Creator is even better. To have a passion, a drive about these things, an inner drive wherein you know where you are going and what you are doing, that’s very important. Spiritualism is very important. Being passionate about something else other than yourself is also very important.Okay, so we’ve discussed on Whole Foods, Water, Air, Sunshine, Exercise and Movement, Regeneration, Relationships and Passion. If you tie all of these things together, and you live by these, and you use them as a driving force that you want to include in your life, then you will have a great and healthy life. And that’s what this is all about, health and living, to do things the right way. You will certainly function properly and healthfully as well. So, are you including all of these in your life? I hope so.I hope you’ve got the opportunity to actually reach out and allow others to help you as well. By helping others and allowing others to help you, by embracing these seven principles of health, you will live a much richer life. It is all about reaching out and helping others through these as well, not just yourself. So if you’ve got the opportunity to help, whether it is just for yourself or for others, this is what it’s all about.It’s very exciting to talk about these principles of health, for you will realize which one of them is lacking in your life. And then it’ll be up to you to go work on these things. If you’re not eating enough whole foods, or drinking enough water, if you’re not getting out and enjoying enough fresh air in your life, open your house up and let the air just breeze right through your house. Get out in the sunshine and enjoy that. Go for a walk, enjoy your rest time, allow your brain to regenerate and recuperate. Put enough effort into relationships and passion and you’ll feel the fulfilment of life right through your whole being.
Software Maintenance Implications on Cost and Schedule
Abstract The dictionary defines maintenance as, “The work of keeping something in proper order.” However, this definition does not necessarily fit for software. Software maintenance is different from hardware maintenance because software doesn’t physically wear out, but often gets less useful with age. Software is typically delivered with undiscovered flaws. Therefore, software maintenance is: “The process of modifying existing operational software while leaving its primary functions intact.” Maintenance typically exceeds fifty percent of the systems’ life cycle cost . While software maintenance can be treated as a level of effort activity, there are consequences on quality, functionality, reliability, cost and schedule that can be mitigated through the use of parametric estimation techniques.1. INTRODUCTION One of the greatest challenges facing software engineers is the management of change control. It has been estimated that the cost of change control can be between 40% and 70% of the life cycle costs . Software engineers have hoped that new languages and new process would greatly reduce these numbers; however this has not been the case. Fundamentally this is because software is still delivered with a significant number of defects. Capers Jones estimates that there are about 5 bugs per Function Point created during Development . Watts Humphrey found “… even experienced software engineers normally inject 100 or more defects per KSLOC . Capers Jones says, “A series of studies the defect density of software ranges from 49.5 to 94.5 errors per thousand lines of code .” The purpose of this article is to first review the fundamentals of software maintenance and to present alternative approaches to estimating software maintenance. A key element to note is that development and management decisions made during the development process can significantly affect the developmental cost and the resulting maintenance costs.2. SOFTWARE MAINTENANCE Maintenance activities include all work carried out post-delivery and should be distinguished from block modifications which represent significant design and development effort and supersede a previously released software package. These maintenance activities can be quite diverse, and it helps to identify exactly what post-delivery activities are to be included in an estimate of maintenance effort. Maintenance activities, once defined, may be evaluated in a quite different light than when called simply “maintenance”. Software maintenance is different from hardware maintenance because software doesn’t physically wear out, but software often gets less useful with age and it may be delivered with undiscovered flaws. In addition to the undiscovered flaws, it is common that some number of known defects pass from the development organization to the maintenance group. Accurate estimation of the effort required to maintain delivered software is aided by the decomposition of the overall effort into the various activities that make up the whole process.3. APPROACHING THE MAINTENANCE ISSUE Maintenance is a complicated and structured process. In his textbook, Estimating Software Intensive Systems, Richard Stuzke outlines the typical software maintenance process. It is apparent that the process is more than just writing new code.The following checklist can be used to explore the realism and accuracy of maintenance requirements.o Which pieces of software will be maintained?o How long will the system need to be maintained?o Are you estimating the entire maintenance problem, or just incremental maintenance?o What level of maintenance is required?o Is that which is being called maintenance in fact a new development project?o Who will do the maintenance? Will it be done organically by the original developer? Will there be a separate team? Will there be a separate organization?o Will maintainers be using the same tools used during development? Are any proprietary tools required for maintenance?o How much Commercial-Off-The-Shelf (COTS) is there? How tightly coupled are the interfaces?o Some follow-on development may be disguised as maintenance. This will either inflate maintenance figures, or else cause shortfalls if basic maintenance gets pushed aside. These questions will help you ask whether maintenance is being honestly represented.o Is the activity really an incremental improvement?o Are healthy chunks of the original code being rewritten or changed?o Will additional staff be brought in to perform the upgrade?o Is the maintenance effort schedule regular and fairly flat, or does it contain staffing humps that look like new development?4. SANITY CHECKS Although sanity checks should be sought on a year-by-year basis, they should not be attempted for overall development. The reason for this is that maintenance activities can be carried on indefinitely, rendering any life-cycle rules useless. As an example, consider Grady (p. 17):We spend about 2 to 3 times as much effort maintaining and enhancing software as we spend creating new software.This and similar observations apply at an organizational level and higher, but not for a specific project. Any development group with a history will be embroiled in the long tail ends of their many delivered projects, still needing indefinite attention. Here are a few quick sanity checks:o One maintainer can handle about 10,000 lines per year.o Overall life-cycle effort is typically 40% development and 60% maintenance.o Maintenance costs on average are one-sixth of yearly development costs.o Successful systems are usually maintained for 10 to 20 years.Finally, as in development, the amount of code that is new versus modified makes a difference. The effective size, that is, the equivalent effort if all the work were new code, is still the key input for both development and maintenance cost estimation.5. FIVE ALTERNATIVE APPROACHES All software estimation techniques must be able to model the theory and the likely real world result. The real world scenario is that over time, the overlay of changes upon changes makes software increasingly difficult to maintain and thus less useful. Maintenance effort estimation techniques range from the simplistic level of effort method, through more thoughtful analysis and development practice modifications, to the use of parametric models in order to use historical data to project future needs.5.1 Level of Effort As is sometimes the case in the development environment, software maintenance can be modeled as a level of effort activity. Given the repair category activities and the great variance that they show, this approach clearly has deficiencies. In this approach, a level of effort to maintain software is based on size and type.5.2 Level of Effort Plus Stuzke proposed that software maintenance starts with basic level of effort (minimum people needed to have a core competency and then that that basic core staff must be modified by assessing three additional factors; configuration management, quality assurance, and project management. His process addressed some of the additional factors affecting software maintenance.5.3 Maintenance Change Factor Software Cost Estimation with COCOMO II (Boehm 2000) proposes a deceivingly simple, but also quite useful methodology for determining annual maintenance. Maintenance is one of the menu selections in the menu bar. In COCOMO II Maintenance encompasses the process of modifying existing operational software while leaving its primary functions intact. This process excludes:o Major re-design and re-development (more than 50% new code) of a new software product performing substantially the same functions.o Design and development of a sizeable (more than 20% of the source instructions comprising the existing product) interfacing software package which requires relatively little redesigning of the existing product.o Data processing system operations, data entry, and modification of values in the database.The maintenance calculations are heavily based upon the Maintenance Change Factor (MCF) and the Maintenance Adjustment Factor (MAF). The MCF is similar to the Annual change Traffic in COCOMO81, except that maintenance periods other than a year can be used. The resulting maintenance effort estimation formula is the same as the COCOMO II Post Architecture development model.As stated previously, three cost drivers for maintenance differ from development. Those cost drivers are software reliability, modern programming practices, and schedule. COCOMO II assumes that increased investment in software reliability and use of modern programming practices during software development has a strong positive effect upon the maintenance stage.Annual Maintenance Effort = (Annual Change Traffic) * (Original Software Development Effort)The quantity Original Software Development Effort refers to the total effort (person-months or other unit of measure) expended throughout development, even if a multi-year project.The multiplier Annual Change Traffic is the proportion of the overall software to be modified during the year. This is relatively easy to obtain from engineering estimates. Developers often maintain change lists, or have a sense of proportional change to be required even before development is complete.5.4 Managing Software Maintenance Costs by Developmental Techniques and Management Decisions During DevelopmentWhen it comes to maintenance, “a penny spent is a pound saved.” Better development practices (even if more expensive) can significantly reduce maintenance effort, and reduce overall life cycle cost. The more effort put into development, the less required in maintenance. As an example, the software development cost and schedule can be significantly impacted (reduced) by letting the number of defects delivered grow. This cost and schedule reduction is more than offset by the increase in maintenance cost. The following discussion is an example of how management decision can significantly affect/reduce software maintenance costs.Lloyd Huff and George Novak of Lockheed Martin Aeronautics in their paper “Lockheed Martin Aeronautics Performance Based Software Sustainment for the F-35 Lightning II” propose a series of development and management decision designed to impact and reduce software maintenance costs. They propose an eight step process to estimate and control software maintenance . Their proposed steps are:1. Strive for Commonality2. Apply Industrial Engineering Practices to Software3. Engage4. Adopt a Holistic Approach to Sustainment5. Develop Highly Maintainable Systems and Software6. Manage the Off-the-Shelf Software7. Plan for the Unexpected8. Analyze and Refine the Software Sustainment Business Case (use Parametric software sustainment cost estimates)5.5 A Parametric Assessment of Software MaintenanceParametric models like SEER for Software allow maintenance to be modeled in either of two ways:Estimating maintenance as a part of the total lifecycle cost. Choosing the appropriate Maintenance category parameters will include an estimate of maintenance effort with the development estimate for the individual software program. Several reports and charts show breakdowns of development vs. maintenance effort. This method is best used to evaluate life cycle costs for each individual software program.Estimating maintenance as a separate activity. Using the appropriate maintenance parameters for the software to be maintained you can model the maintenance effort as a separate activity. This method will allow you to fine tune your maintenance estimate by adjusting parameters. Maintenance size should be the same as development size, but should be entered as all pre-existing code. This method can also be useful in breaking out total project maintenance costs from project development costs.A good parametric estimate for maintenance includes a wide range of information. Critical information for completing a software maintenance estimate is the size or amount of software that will be maintained, the quality of that software, the quality and availability of the documentation, and the type or amount of maintenance that will be done. Many organizations don’t actually estimate maintenance costs; they simply have a budget for software maintenance. In this case, a parametric model should be used to compute how much maintenance can actually be performed with the given budget.Estimating and planning for maintenance are critical activities if the software is required to function properly throughout its expected life. Even with a limited budget, a plan can be made to use the resources available in the most efficient, productive manner. Looking at the diagram above, you can see that not only are the multiple inputs that impact the maintenance, but there are several key outputs that provide the information necessary to plan a successful maintenance effort.6. Conclusion The conclusions of this article are:o Software maintenance can be modeled using a simplistic method like Level of Effort Staffing, but this technique has significant drawbacks.o Software maintenance costs can be significantly affected by management decisions during the developmental process.o Software maintenance can be accurately estimated using parametric processes.o Software maintenance is best modeled when development and management decisions are coupled with parametric cost estimation techniques.REFERENCES [1] Software Maintenance Concepts and Practices (second Edition) by Penny Grubb and Armstrong Takang, World Scientific, 2005.[2] Estimating Software Intensive Systems; Richard Stuzke, 2005, Addison-Wesley.[3] Lloyd Huff, George Novak; Lockheed Martin Aeronautics; Lockheed Martin Aeronautics Performance Based Software Sustainment for the F-35 Lightning II.[4] G. Edward Bryan, “CP-6: Quality and Productivity Measures in the 15-Year Life Cycle of an Operating System,” Software Quality Journal 2, 129-144, June 1993.[5] Software Sizing, Estimation, and Risk Management; Daniel D. Galorath, Michael W. Evans, 2006, Auerbach Publications.